۱ A Village Politician: The Life-Story of John Buckley, ed. J. C. Buckmaster (Lon-don, 1897), p. 41.
۲ M. Sensfelder, Histoire de la cordonnerie (Paris, 1856), quoted in Joseph Bar-beret, Le travail en France: monographies professionnelles, 7 vols. (Paris, 1886-90), v,pp. 63-4.
۳ Rudolf Stadelmann, “Soziale Ursachen der Revolution von 1848”, in Hans-Ulrich Wehler (ed.), Moderne deutsche Sozialgeschichle (Berlin, 1970), p. 140; E. J. Hobsbawm and George Rude, Captain String (London, 1969), p. 181; Jacques Rou-gerie, “Compoiition d’une population insurgee: l’exemple de la Commune”, Le mouvement social, no. 48 (1964), p. 42; Theodore Zeldin, France, 1848-194$, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1973), i, p. 214.
۴ The late Ian Turner of the Australian National University, Canberra, cited the case of a large number of these men, arrested after the October Revolution for holding a meeting in favour of insurrection and Soviets. A careful search for subversive literature produced no printed matter of any kind, except a leaflet which a number carried in their pockets. It read: “If water rots your boots, what will it do to your stomach?”.
۵ Jean-Pierre Aguet, Les greves sous la monarchie dejuillet, 1830-1847 (Geneva, 1954); David Pinkney, “The Crowd in the French Revolution of 1830”, Amer. Hist. Rev., lxx (1964), pp. 1-17; David Jones, Chartism and the Chartists (London, 1975), pp. 30-2; D. J. Goodway, “Chartism in London” (London Univ. Ph.D. thesis, 1979), pp. 37-9, shows their proportional participation in London Chartism to be higher than any other large occupation (over three thousand members) except stone-masons; George Rude, The Crowd in the French Revolution (Oxford, 1959), appendix 4.
۶ Georges Duveau, La vie ouvriere en France sous le Second Empire, 7th edn. (Paris, 1946), p. 75
۷ Jacques Rougerie, Paris libre (Paris, 1971), p. 263. Edgar Rodrigues, Socialismo e sindicalismo no Brasil, 1675-1913 (Rio de Janeiro 969). PP- 73. ” 3 .
۸ Edgar Rodrigues, Socialismo e sindicalismo no Brasil, 1675-1913 (Rio de Janeiro, •969). PP- 73. ” 3 .
۹ Yves Lequin, La ouvrxen de la rigion lyonnaise, 1848-1914, 2 vols. (Lyon, •977). »>P- 28 ••
۱۰ Karl Obermann, Zur Geschichte det Bundcs der Kommunisten (East Berlin, 1955), p. 28.
۱۱ Paul Voigt, “Das deutsche Handwerk nach den Berufszghlungen von 1882 und 1895”, in Vntersuchungen uberdieLagedesHandtoerksinDeutschland, ii(Schriflen des Vereins filr Socialpolitik, lxx, Leipzig, 1897); J. H. Clapham, Economic History of Modern Britain, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1952), ii, p. 43.
۱۲ Hobsbawm and Rude, Captain Swing, pp. 181-2.
۱۳ bid., pp. 218, 246.
۱۴ Keith Brooker, “The Northampton Shoemakers’ Reaction to Industrialisation: Some Thoughts”, Northamptonshire Past and Present, vi (1980), p. 155.
۱۵ Sample taken from Librairie A. Faure, 15 rue du Val du Grace, catalogue 5, Livres anciens et modernes, items 262-324; checked in Jean Maitron (ed.), Diction-naire biographique du mouvement ouvrier francais, Pt. /, /7S9-/864, 3 vols. (Paris,1964-6).
۱۶ David M. Gordon, “Merchants and Capitalists: Industrialization and Provincial Politics at Reims and St. Etienne under the Second Republic and Second Empire” (Brown Univ. Ph.D. thesis, 1978), p. 67.
۱۷ William Sewell Jr., “The Structure of the Working Class of Marseille in the Middle of the Nineteenth Century” (Univ. of California, Berkeley, Ph.D. thesis, 1971), p. 299.
۱۸ “De 1’association des ouvriers de tous les corps d’etat”, repr. in Alain Faure and Jacques Ranciire (eds.), La parole ouvriere, 1830-1851 (Paris, 1976), pp. 159-68.
۱۹ Gian Maria Bravo, Les socialises avant Marx, 2 vols. (Paris, 1970), ii, p. 221.
۲۰ Alfred F. Young, “George Robert Twelves Hewes, 1742-1840: A Boston Shoe-maker and the Memory of the American Revolution” (forthcoming in William and Mary Quart.).
۲۱ Maurice Garden, Lyon et les Lyonnais au XVIII’siicle (Paris, 1970), pp. 244 ff. Above-average literacy is noted for rural cordwaincrs in David Cressy, Literacy and the Social Order: Reading and Writing in Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 130-6, but average or sub-average literacy for the lower classification of “shoemakers” both in London and countryside. For various reasons Cressy’s London figures are more problematic than his rural ones.
۲۲ Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Let paysans de Languedoc, 2 vols. (Paris, 1966), i, pp. 349-51.
۲۳ Peter Burke, Popu/ar Culture in Early Modern Europe (London, 1978), pp. 38-9.
۲۴ Jean Maitron, Le mouvement anarchiste en France, 2 vols. (Paris, 1975), i, p. 131.
۲۵ For example, Anon., Crispin Anecdotes: Comprising Interesting Notices of Shoe-makers, who have been Distinguished for Genius, Enterprise or Eccentricity (Sheffieldand London, 1827); John Prince, Wreath for St. Crispin: Being Sketches of Eminent Shoemakers (Boston, Mass., 1848); Anon., Crispin: The Delightful, Princely and Entertaining History of the Gentle Craft (London, 1750); William Edward Winks, Lives of Illustrious Shoemakers (London, 1883); Thomas Wright, The Romance of the Shoe (London, 1922); Anon., Lives of Distinguished Shoemakers (Portland, Me., 1849); Joseph Sparkes Hall, The Book of the Feet (New York, 1847).
۲۶ “Bei leisten, drSt und pech der Schumacher sol bleiben und die gelehrten leutlessen die biicher schreiben”, “predigender Schuster macht schlechte Schuhe”:Deutsches Sprichworter-Lexikon, 5 vols. (Aalen, 1963), iv, cols. 398-9. The injusticeof such proverbs so outraged the nineteenth-century compilers of this encyclopaedia that they added a footnote citing two highly intellectual shoemakers who also produced excellent shoes (col. 399).
۲۷ Charles Bradlaugh, the champion of atheism, was elected M.P. for Northampton, a shoemaking constituency.
۲۸ Karl Flanner, Die Revolution von 1848 in Wiener Neustadt (Vienna, 1978), p. 181.
۲۹ Eugenia W. Herbert, The Artist and Social Reform: France and Belgium, 1885-1898 (New Haven, Conn., 1961), pp. 14 ff.; for the shoemaker’s revenge o n Apelles, w h o originally invited him to stick to his last and abstain from art criticism, cf. the enormous influence (through Grave) o f anarchism on post-Impressionist painters, see ibid., pp. 184 ff.
۳۰ Samuel Smiles, Men of Invention and Industry (London, 1884), ch. 12.
۳۱ See Crispin Anecdotes, p. 144; cf. also Hobsbawm and Rude, Captain Swing, pp. 63, 70.
۳۲ Crispin Anecdotes, p. 4 5 ; Winks, Lives of Illustrious Shoemakers, p. 2 3 2 .
۳۳ John Brown, Sixty Years’ Gleanings from Life’s Harvest: A Genuine Autobiography (Cambridge, 1858), p. 2 3 9 , cited in Nicholas Mansfield, “John Brown: A Shoemaker’s Place in London”, History Workshop, viii ( 1 9 7 9 ), p. 135.
۳۴ Barberet, Le travail en France, v, pp. 6 2 – 3 .
۳۵ Wright, Romance of the Shoe, p. 218. 34
۳۶ Ibid., p. 307.
۳۷ Paul Lacroix, Alphonse Ducheine and Ferdinand Sere, Histoire des cordon/tiers el des artisans done la profession se rattache a la cordonnerie (Paris, 1852),pp. 116-17.
۳۸ Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, 1. i; Dekker, The Shoemaker’s Holiday, iv. 48-76. The quotation is from the Cerne Abbas Inquiry of 1594 (Brit. Lib., Harleian MS. 6849, fos. 183-90), in Willobie His Aviso, ed. G. B. Harrison (London, 1926), appen-dix 3, p. 264. We are obliged to Michael Hunter for this early example of English radical shoemakers.
۳۹ Crispin Anecdotes, p. 150
۴۰ Wright, Romance of the Shoe, p. 109
۴۱ Ibid., p. 4.
۴۲ E. P . T h o m p s o n , The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1963), pp. 183-4.
۴۳ Crispin Anecdotes, p. 126
۴۴ Lacroix, Duchesne and Sere, Histoire des cordonniers, pp. 206-7.
۴۵ bid., p . 188.
۴۶ Barberet, Le travail en France, v, pp. 64-5.
۴۷ Wright, Romance of the Shoe, p. 46; Hall, Book of the Feet, pp. 196-7. Despite the suggestion of these authors no association between shocmaking and bookbinding has been established. In London sons of shoemakers are probably under-represented in the trade between 1600 and 1815. While bookbinding was not infrequently combined with some other occupation such as merchant-tailor, draper, barber, mason, glazier, weaver, dyer, needle-maker and wheelwright, in no case was it combined with shoe-making. Calculated from Ellic Howe, A List of London Bookbinders, 1648-181$(London, 1950).
۴۸ Cf. the role of one Hans von Sagan in the traditions of German shoemakers. He gained the emperor’s favour and the craft the right to include the imperial eagle in its coat of arms, by intervening in a fourteenth-century battle. The relative scarcity of formalized custom in the trade has been noted in Rudolf Wissefl, Des alten Handwerks Recht und Gewohnheit, ed. Konrad Hahm, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1929), ii, p. 91; Andreas Griessinger, Das symbolische Kapital der Ehre: Streikbeteegungen und kollektives Bewusstscin deutscher Handwerhsgesellen im i8.Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, Berlin and Vienna, 1981). We are very grateful to Andreas Griessinger of the University of Kon-stanz for making the manuscript of his book available to us prior to its publication.
۴۹ The Unknown Mayhew, ed. Eileen Yeo «nd E. P. Thompson (London, 1971), P- 279-
۵۰ Richard Watteroth, “Die Erfimer Schuharbeiterschaft”, in Autlae undAnpai-sung der Arbeiterschaft in der Schuhinduttrie und einem oberschlesischen Walzwerke (Schriften d « Vereins fur Sozialpolitik, cliii, Munich and Leipzig, 1915), p. 6.
۵۱ Calculated from Joseph Belli, Die Rote Feldposl unterm Soxialistengesetz (Bonn, 1978 edn.), pp. 54-94- We are obliged to Rainer Wirtz for this reference. Julius Pier-storff, “Drei Jenacr Handwerke”, in Untersuchungen tiber die Lage da Handtcerks in Deuuchland, ix (Schriften des Vercins fOr Socialpolitik, lxx, Leipzig, 1897), p. 36, notes that journeymen stayed a maximum of six months in the same shop.
۵۲ Gricssinger, Das symbolische Kapilal der Ehre, pp. 102-7, describes these rituals excellently for eighteenth<entury Germany.
۵۳ Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe, pp. 38-9.
۵۴ Roben Chambers, The Book of Days, 2 vols. (London and Edinburgh, 1862-4), ii, p. 492; A. R. Wright, British Calendar Customs: England, ed. T. E. Lones, 3 vols. (Folk-Lore Soc., xcvii, cii, cvi, London and Glasgow, 1936-40), iii, pp. 102-4. In England (but not in Scotland) it may have been aided by the association of St. Criipin’s Day with nationalism, for this was, as readers of Shakespeare’s Henry V will recall, the date of the battle of Agincourt against the French.
۵۵ As surveyed in Griessinger, Das symbolische Kapital der Ehre, pp. 130-3.
۵۶ Brooker, “The Northampton Shoemakers’ Reaction to Industrialisation”, pas-sim, on conflicts arising out of this during industrialization. See also Mansfield, “John Brown: A Shoemaker’s Place in London”, passim.
۵۷ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographit, iii, entry for Jakob Bohme.
۵۸ Dictionary of National Biography, v.
۵۹ Winks, Lives of Illustrious Shoemakers, pp. 81, 180.
۶۰ Brian Dobbs, The Last Shall Be First: The Colourful Story of John Lobb, the St. James’s Bootmaker (London, 1972), pp. 27-8.
۶۱ B. Aebert, “Die Schuhmacherei in Loitz”, in Untersuchungen Sber die Lage des Handtcerks in Deutschland, i (Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, lxii, Leipzig, ‘ 895)) PP- 39i 49; Siegfried Heckscher, “Uber die Lage des Schuhmachergewerbes in Altona, Elmshorn, Heide, Preetz und Barmstedt”, in ibid,, p. 2.
۶۲ Bernardino Ramazzini, Health Preserved, in Two Treatises, 2nd edn. (London, 1750), p. 215.
۶۳ John Thomas Arlidge, The Hygiene, Diseases and Mortality of Occupations (London, 1892), p. 216, quoting William Farr’s data of 1875 — below-average mortality at all ages except 20-25 as against the very high mortality of tailors and Ratcliffe, an analyst of the mortality of members of Friendly Societies, who considered their “vitality” inferior only to that of farm-labourers and carpenters.
۶۴ Crispin Anecdotes, p. 126.
۶۵ “The frequency of the development of literary talent among shoemakers has often been remarked. Their occupation, being a sedentary and comparatively noiseless one, may be considered as more favorable than some othen to meditation; but perhaps its literary produaiveness has arisen quite as much from the circumstance of its being a trade of light labor, and therefore resorted to, in preference to most others, by persons in the humble life who are conscious of more mental talent than bodily strength”: Hall, Book of the Feet, p. 4.
۶۶ Aebert, “Die Schuhmacherci in Loitz”, p. 38.
۶۷ Nicolaus Geissenberger, “Die Schuhmacherei in Leipzig und Umgcgend”, in Untersuchungen uber die Lage des Handwerks in Dcutschland, ii (Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, lxiii, Leipzig, 1895), P- 169.
۶۸ Pauly-Wissowa, Real-encyclopddie der classischen Alterthumswissentchaft, 2nd ser., iv (1), cols. 989-94, under “sutor”. The low status of the trade is demonstrated in the language as well. In France savelier was a term of derision; in England a cobbler also meant a “botcher” or unskilled workman. See Lacroix, Duchesne and Sere, Hisloirc des cordonnieri, p. 179.
۶۹ Arlidge, Hygiene, Diseases and Mortality of Occupations, p. 216.
۷۰ On these references to shoemakers, see Crispin Anecdotes, p. 102; Deutsches Sprichworter-Lexikon, iv, cols. 398-401; English Dialect Dictionary, i, under “cobbler”, “Cobbler’s dinner — bread and bread to it”. The popular impression from colonial America to Europe held that, whatever else he was, a shoemaker was rarely prosperous. Poverty and a propensity for philosophizing were not at all contradictory; indeed they may help to explain the long-standing reputation of shoemakers as radicals. Thinking men among the poor were very likely to become political or ideological radicals. John Brown’s memory of “the great orators of the craft” described “men in ragged habiliments and of squalid looks who “pour forth in touching and eloquent language their appeals”: Mansfield, “John Brown: A Shoemaker’s Place in London”, p. 131.
۷۱ Max von Taycnihal, “Die Schuhwarenindustrie Osterreichs”, Sociale Rundschau [Arbeitsslatistisches Amt i m k . u.k. Handelsministerium], ii pt. 1 (1901), p. 764.
۷۲ George Unwin, The Gilds and Companies of London (London, 1908), p. 82; Geissenbcrger, “Die Schuhmacherri in Leipzig und Umgegend”, p. 169; Watteroth, “Die Erfurter Schuharbeitcrschaft”, p. 15.
۷۳ In Santiago and Valparaiso province* in 1854 there were 5,865 of them, compared to 3,720 carpenters, 1,615 tailors, 1,287 masons and bricklayers and 1,088 smiths and farriers: L. A. Romero, La Sodedad dt la Igualdad: lot artesanos de Santiago de Chiley susprhneras cxperienciaspolitical, I82O-I8$I (Buenos Aires, 1978), p. 14. See also A. Eternal, A. Collames de TeTan and A. Garcia-Baquero, “Sevilla: de los gremios a la industrializaci6n”, Estudios de historia social [Madrid], nos. 5-6 (1978), pp. 7-310, esp. Cuadro 8.
۷۴ Griessinger, Das symbolische Kapital der Ehre, pp. 87-90.
۷۵ J. A. Faber, Drie Eeuioen Friesland, 2 vols. (A. A. G. Bijdragen, xvii, Wageningen, 1972), ii, tables 111.8, 111.9, at pp. 444-5, 446-7.
۷۶ Gricssinger, Das lymboliiche Kapital der Ehre, pp. 90-5.
۷۷ Thus Winks discusses the problem of the intellectual distinction of shoemakers under the heading “A Constellation of Celebrated Cobblers”: Winks, Lives of Illustrious Shoemakers, pp. 229 ff. For interchangeability, *ee also Scottish National Dictionary, under “souter”.
۷۸ C.N.R.S., Trisor dc la langue francaise (Paris, 1978), under “cordonnier”; Grimms Wonenbuch, under “Schuster”.
۷۹ Geissenberger, “Die Schuhmacherei in Leipzig und Umgegend”, p. 175.
۸۰ Utz Jaeggle, Kiebingen: Eine Heimaigeschichu (Tubingen, 1977), p. 249. Hardly any of the local shoemakers belonged to the upper stratum of the village, and the majority not even to the middle stratum. “Even today shoemakers count for nothing in the village”: ibid. We are obliged to Rainer Wirtz for this reference.
۸۱ We are informed, however, that among eighteenth-century London cordwainers inter-generational continuity in the trade was unusually high.
۸۲ Wilhelm Weitling, Garanticn der Harmonic undFreiheit (Berlin, 1955 edn.), p. 289.
۸۳ Flanner, Die Revolution von 1848 in Wiener Neustadt, pp. 26-7. Since the city specialized in the metal industries as well as textiles, metal craftsmen (less numerous though they were than shoemakers) are omitted as likely to have been over-represented.
۸۴ We need to know more, in particular, about the extent of the practice of going barefoot (widespread among women and children) and the use of alternative footwear— clogs, felt or bast boots and shoes, and the like.
۸۵ Cf. the Calabrian shoemaker cited in E. J. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester, 1959), appendix 9, who prided himself on working even for the carabinieri.
۸۶ Is there a connection between this agricultural rhythm and St. Crispin’s Day on 25th October?
۸۷ We owe this point to Dr. MikulaS Teich, who quotes the proverb from his native Czechoslovakia: “Where there is cutting, weighing or pouring, money is to be made”.
۸۸ Raymond Williams, Culture and Society (New York, 1960), p. 16, citing the Political Register, 14 Apr. 1821.
۸۹ Richard Cobb, Les armies rivolutionnaira, 2 vols. (Paris and T h e Hague, 1961-3), ii, pp. 486-7.
۹۰ Crispin Anecdotes, pp. 154-5.
۹۱ Dale Tomich and Anson G. Rabinbach, “Georges Haupt, 1928-1978”, German Critique, no. 14 (1978), p. 3.
۹۲ Richard Schflller, “Die Schuhmacherei in Wien”, in Untersuchungen iiber die Lage des Handwerks in Osterreich (Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, lxxi, Leipzig, 1896), pp. 49-50.
۹۳ J. H. Clapham, Economic History of Modern Britain, i, 2nd edn. (Cambridge, 1930), p. 169.
۹۴ Geissenberger, “Die Schuhmacherei in Leipzig und Umgegend”, p. 190.
۹۵ Tayenthal, “Die Schuhwarenindustrie Osterreichs”, pp. 764-5; Heckscher, “Uber die Lage des Schuhmachergewerbes in Altona, Elmshorn, Heide, Prcetz und Barmstedt”, pp. 4, 6.
۹۶ P. R. Mounfield, “The Footwear Industry of the East Midlands”, East Midlands Geographer, xxii (1965), pp. 293-306.
۹۷ For the situation in Lynn, Massachusetts, see Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (Cambridge, Mass., 1976).
۹۸ James Devlin, The Guide to Trade: The Shoemaker, 2 vols. (London, [ 839), is the best manual o f shoemaking techniques before mechanization. T h e author, a radical, activist and minor literary figure (he contributed to Leigh Hunt’s London Journal) was the best craftsman in the London trade: Goodway, “Chartism in London”, p. 245. For the later nineteenth century, sec John Bedford Leno, The Art of Boot- and Shoe-making. .. with a Description of the Most Approved Machinery Employed (London, 1885). L«no, though a printer by trade and poetaster/reciter by avocation, was long associated with the craft as owner and editor o f the journal Si. Crispin; see his The Aftermath: With Autobiography of the Author (London, 1892). For a more recent treatment, see R. A. Church, “Labour Supply and Innovation, 1800-1860: T h e Boot and Shoe Industry”, Business Hist., xii (1970). For Erfurt, see Watteroth, “Die Erfurter Schuharbeiterschaft”, esp. pp. 113-14.
۹۹ Barberet, Le travail en France, v, pp. 7 1 , 85, 116, 163; Emile Levasseur, Histohe des classes ouvriires et de I’induslrie en France de /7S9 d 1870, 2 vols. (Paris, 1940 edn.), ii, p. 567; Christopher Johnson, “Communism and the Working Class before Marx: Thelcarian Experience”,Amer.Hist.Rev.,\xxvi{ig-ji),p. 661;DavidLandes, The Unbound Prometheus (London, 1969), pp. 294-6; Direction du travail, Let associations professionelles ouvriires, 4 vols. (Paris, [894-1904), ii, pp. 11-87; The Unknown Mayheto, ed. Yeo and Thompson, pp. 228-79.
۱۰۰ Sewell, “The Structure o f the Working Class o f Marseille”, p. 217 .
۱۰۱ Charles Poncy, “La chanson du cordonnier”, in his La chanson de chaque metier (Paris, 1850), pp. 80-5.
۱۰۲ Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p. 704.
۱۰۳ Cited in Faure and Ranciire, La parole ouvrikre, 104 1830-1851, p. 161.
۱۰۴ James Hawker’s Journal: A Victorian Poacher, ed. Garth Christian (Oxford, ‘978), pp. 15. 16. See also Mansfield, “John Brown: A Shoemaker’s Place in London”, pp. 130-1, who cites John Brown in 1811: “So soon as I was settled in a regular seat of work, it became necessary that I should join the trade or shops-meeting, which is a combination for the support of wages”.
۱۰۵ “The Reminiscences of Thomas Dunning (1813-1894) and the Nantwich Shoe-makers’ Case of 1834”, ed. W. H. Chaloner, Trans. Lanes, and Cheshire Antiq. Soc.,
۱۰۶ Ibid.
۱۰۷ Based on the biographical data in Hermann Weber, Die Wandlung schen Kommunismus, 2 vols. (Frankfurt, 1969), ii.
۱۰۸ Claude Willard, Le mouvement socialiste en France, /S9J-/905: let Guesdisles (Paris, 1965), esp. pp. 335-7. See also Tony Judt, Socialism in Provence, 1871-1914 (Cambridge, 1979), pp. 73, 112.
۱۰۹ Parti Communiste Francais, Des Francois en qui la France peut avoir confiance, 2nd cdn. (Paris, 1945); Maurice Duverger (ed.), Partis politiquet et classes sodales en France (Paris, 1955), pp. 302, 304.
۱۱۰ Based on data in Jean Maitron and Georges Haupt (eds.), Dictionnahe biographique du mouvement ouvrier international: I’Autriche (Paris, 1971).
۱۱۱ Based on Joyce Bellamy and John Seville (eds.), Dictionary of Labour Biography (London, 1972-, in progress).
۱۱۲ Maitron, Le mouvement anarchute en France, i, p. 131